Osteology Assessment ~ Report No 1305
Summary
York Osteoarchaeology Ltd was commissioned by Field Archaeology Specialists Ltd to carry out the osteological analysis of two skeletons. These were recovered during an archaeological watching brief at Nosterfield Quarry, North Yorkshire (NGR SE 7661 0886 ) .
Osteological analysis revealed that the skeletons comprised of a young adult male and a middle aged or older female. The woman suffered from degenerative joint disease of the ribs. The young male had experienced episodes of childhood stress, which he had successfully survived. It is thought that he carried out activities, which placed strain on the rotator cuff muscles of the shoulders and suffered from poor blood supply to the hip joints, causing malformation of the femoral necks. Poor oral hygiene had probably contributed to calculus deposits on some of the teeth, as well as a cavity in one of the molars of the upper jaw.
The skeletal remains were interred in simple graves, which were possibly associated with two curvilinear ditches. While the female skeleton was located within the confines of curvilinear ditch F432, the male skeleton was clipped by the ditch.
Acknowledgements
York Osteoarchaeology Ltd would like to thank Justin Garner-Lahire of Field Archaeology Specialists Ltd for his help and support.
Introduction
In May 2005 York Osteoarchaeology Ltd was commissioned by Field Archaeology Specialists Ltd to carry out the osteological analysis of two skeletons. The skeletons had been excavated in April 2005 during an archaeological watching brief at Nosterfield Quarry, North Yorkshire (NGR SE 7661 0886 ) .
The skeletons were interred in supine extended positions with their heads to the north and the feet to the south. The burials were thought to be associated with two curvilinear ditches, which were only partly revealed during the watching brief. Skeleton C1873 was located within the confines of one of the ditches (F430), while Skeleton C1871 was clipped by the ditch. Both burials were heavily plough-damaged, causing loss and fragmentation of some of the bones.
Aims & Objectives
The aim of the skeletal analysis was to determine the age, sex and stature of the skeletons, as well as to record and diagnose any skeletal manifestations of disease and trauma.
Methodology
The skeletons and were analysed in detail, assessing the preservation and completeness, as well as determining the age, sex and stature of the individuals (Appendix A). All pathological lesions were recorded and described.
Osteological Analysis
Osteological analysis is concerned with the determination of the identity of a skeleton, by estimating its age, sex and stature. Robusticity and non-metric traits can provide further information on the appearance and familial affinities of the individual studied. This information is essential in order to determine the prevalence of disease types and age-related changes. It is crucial for identifying gender dimorphism in occupation, lifestyle and diet, as well as the role of different age groups in society.
Preservation
Skeletal preservation depends upon a number of factors, including the age and sex of the individual as well as the size, shape and robusticity of the bone. Burial environment, post-depositional disturbance and treatment following excavation can also have a considerable impact on bone condition. Preservation of human skeletal remains is assessed subjectively, depending upon the severity of bone surface erosion and post-mortem breaks, but disregarding completeness.
Preservation was assessed using a grading system of five categories: very poor, poor, moderate, good and excellent. Excellent preservation implied no bone surface erosion and very few or no breaks, whereas very poor preservation indicated complete or almost complete loss of the bone surface due to erosion and severe fragmentation.
Skeleton 1871 was in a poor condition (Table 1). Although fragmentation of the bone was limited, the bone surface was severely eroded. Skeleton 1873 had been severely affected by ploughing and was in a very poor condition.
Table 1 Summary of osteological and palaeopathological results
Skeleton No |
Preservation |
Completeness |
Age |
Sex |
Stature |
Pathology |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1871 |
Poor |
60% |
18-25 |
Male |
163cm |
Coxa vara, bone excavations, dental enamel hypoplasia |
1873 |
Very poor |
18% |
35+ |
Female |
- |
DJD |
Loss of the majority of bones of Skeleton 1873 through the effects of ploughing meant that only the bone that had been located in a deeper part of the grave, namely parts of the torso survived. Skeleton 1873 was only 18% complete, while 60% of the bone from Skeleton 1871 survived.
Minimum Number of Individuals
A count of the 'minimum number of individuals' (MNI) recovered from a cemetery is carried out as standard procedure in osteological reports on inhumations in order to establish how many individuals are represented by the articulated and disarticulated human bones (without taking the archaeologically defined graves into account). The MNI is calculated by counting all long bone ends, as well as other larger skeletal elements recovered. The largest number of these is then taken as the MNI. The MNI is likely to be lower than the actual number of skeletons which would have been interred on the site, but represents the minimum number of individuals which can be scientifically proven to be present.
The presence of two left humeral shafts, together with two left femoral heads suggested that the MNI for this assemblage was two individuals.
Assessment of Age
Age was determined using standard ageing techniques, as specified in Scheuer and Black (2000a; 2000b) and Cox (2000). Age estimation relies on the presence of the pelvis and uses different stages of bone development and degeneration in order to calculate the age of an individual. Age is split into a number of categories, from foetus (up to 40 weeks in utero ), neonate (around the time of birth), infant (newborn to one year), juvenile (1-12 years), adolescent (13-17 years), young adult (ya; 18-25 years), young middle adult (yma; 26-35 years), old middle adult (oma; 36-45 years), mature adult (ma; 46+) to adult (an individual whose age could not be determined more accurately as over the age of seventeen).
Dental development, bone fusion and the auricular surface (hip and sacrum joint) suggested that Skeleton 1871 was a young adult, aged between seventeen and 25 years (see Table 1). Age estimation of Skeleton 1873 was based on the auricular surface, which suggested that this individual was at least 35 years old; however, it was not possible to determine age more accurately in this individual, as the joint surface was eroded.
Sex Determination
Sex determination was carried out using standard osteological techniques, such as those described by Mays and Cox (2000a). Assessment of sex in both males and females relies on the preservation of the skull and the pelvis and can only be carried out once sexual characteristics have developed, during late puberty and early adulthood.
On the basis of the hip and skull characteristics, Skeleton 1871 was found to be male (see Table 1). He displayed marks at the pelvis, termed pre-auricular sulcus , which are usually observed in a mild form in most adult female skeletons. These marks are characterised by pits or grooves just below the hip and sacrum joint. Until recently, it was thought that the formation of a pre-auricular sulcus was related to the process of childbirth. However, the latest studies have found that childbirth is not the only cause for such marks, and in fact, they are more closely related to biomechanics, and in particular, pelvic flexibility (Cox 2000b). This is a potential factor for the development of these marks in Skeleton 1871.
It was not possible to determine sex accurately in Skeleton 1873, as none of the criteria normally used for sex estimation were preserved. However, the gracile nature of this skeleton suggests that it was probably female.
Metric Analysis
Stature depends on two main factors, heredity and environment. However, stature can also fluctuate between chronological periods. Stature can only be established in skeletons if at least one complete and fully fused long bone is present. The bone is measured on an osteometric board, and stature is then calculated using a regression formula developed upon individuals of known stature.
In this instance, it was possible to assess stature in Skeleton 1871 (see Table 1). The man was 163cm tall, with a standard error of ± 3.27cm. It was not possible to calculate stature for Skeleton 1873, as no complete long bones survived.
Leg measurements were obtained from the femora of both skeletons and the tibiae of Skeleton 1871, and these were used to calculate robusticity indices. The platymeria index is a method of calculating the shape and robusticity of the femoral shaft. The femoral shafts were platymeric (broad and flat) in both individuals. The platycnemia index (robusticity index) of the tibiae was calculated in order to establish the degree of tibial shaft flatness. The tibial shafts of Skeleton 1871 were eurycnemic (of average dimensions).
Craniometric measurements could not be taken, as the skull of Skeleton 1871 was too fragmented and the skull of Skeleton 1873 had not been preserved.
Non-metric Traits
Non-metric traits are additional sutures, facets, bony processes, canals and foramina, which occur in a minority of skeletons and are believed to suggest hereditary affiliation between skeletons (Saunders 1989). The origins of non-metric traits have been extensively discussed in the osteological literature and it is now thought that while most non-metric traits have genetic origins, some can be produced by factors such as mechanical stress (Kennedy 1989) or environment (Trinkhaus 1978).
A total of thirty cranial and thirty post-cranial non-metric traits were selected from the osteological literature (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994, Finnegan 1978, Berry and Berry 1967) and recorded for both skeletons.
Only two non-metric traits were noted. Third trochanters (a bony process at the upper parts of the femoral shaft) were observed in Skeleton 1871. This trait has been attributed to mechanical stress, in particular to the main bottom muscle, gluteus maximus and may therefore be activity-related.
Skeleton 1873 exhibited circumflex sulcus (a groove) on the medial part of the left scapula. This trait may be related to the presence of a blood vessel at this site and would not have affected this individual.
Conclusion
Osteological analysis of the skeletal remains established that the individuals found comprised of a young adult male and a middle-aged or older female.
Pathological Analysis
Pathological conditions can manifest themselves on the skeleton during life, especially when the condition is chronic or the result of trauma to the bone. The bone elements to which muscles attach can also provide information on muscle trauma and excessive use of muscles.
Trauma
Bone
is a dynamic material which can change its morphology, size and robustness
in response to prolonged activity (Knüsel 2000, 383). As a result, greater
activity and mechanical stress causes the bone to become shapelier, with
ridges and depressions caused by muscle action. Constant stress can cause
cortical bone defects at the site of muscle or ligament attachments when
they lose the capacity to properly absorb the stress imposed (Hawkey and
Merbs 1995, 329).
Skeleton 1871 suffered from cortical bone defects at muscle attachments, which are part of the rotator cuff at the shoulder (Plate 1), They aid in abducting the arm, medially rotating it and adducting and extending it at the shoulder. The defects were only seen in the right arm, suggesting that the individual was right-handed.
Degenerative Joint Disease
The term joint disease encompasses a large number of conditions with different causes, which all affect the articular joints of the skeleton. Factors influencing joint disease include physical activity, occupation, workload and advancing age, which manifest as degenerative joint disease and osteoarthritis. Alternatively, joint changes may have inflammatory causes, such as sceptic or rheumatoid arthritis. Different joint diseases affect the articular joints in a different way, and it is the type of lesion, together with the distribution of skeletal manifestations, which determines the diagnosis.
The most common type of joint disease observed in skeletons tends to be degenerative joint disease (DJD). DJD is characterised by both bone formation (osteophytes) and bone resorption (porosity) at and around the articular surfaces of the joints, which can cause great discomfort and disability (Rogers 2001). DJD was noted on the tubercles (vertebral joints) of three ribs of Skeleton 1873.
Circulatory Disease
The femora of Skeleton 1871 displayed some shortening of the femoral necks,
also termed coxa vara (Plate 2). This condition can have a number
of different causes, including Perthes' disease ( inflammation of the hip
joint, probably due to interference of blood supply) or a vascular necrosis (death
of bone due to limited blood supply). However, the lack of evidence for joint
disease and other skeletal manifestations helpful for a diagnosis means that
one can only suggest that this individual suffered from poor blood supply
in the hips.
Conclusion
Few manifestations of pathology were noted in these two individuals. Muscular trauma, such as that noted in Skeleton 1871, is commonly observed in skeletons from archaeological contexts. Similarly, the degenerative joint disease observed in Skeleton 1873 is frequently seen in individuals over the age of 35. However, the presence of shortened femoral necks (as noted in Skeleton 1871) is relatively rare and may have been debilitating, depending on the cause of the condition.
Dental Health
Analysis of the teeth from archaeological populations provides vital clues about health, diet and oral hygiene, as well as information about environmental and congenital conditions. Skeleton 1873 was lacking any teeth, while a total of 26 teeth were recovered from Skeleton 1871.
Dental wear tends to be more common and severe in archaeological populations than in modern societies, and is caused by a much coarser diet. The severity of the dental wear in Skeleton 1871 was mild, which corresponds with his young age and relatively recent tooth eruption.
Calculus (dental plaque) is commonly observed in archaeological populations whose dental hygiene was not as rigorous as it is today. Calculus mineralises and forms concretions on the tooth crowns, along the line of the gums. Calculus was observed in six teeth (23%), and was slight. It is probable that the calculus deposits caused periodontitis (receding gums) in the mandible (lower jaw).
Caries lesions (cavities) were not very common before an increase in the availability of sugar in the 17th century (Roberts and Manchester 1995, 49). One caries lesion was noted on the right first molar, which was moderate in size and affected the medial side of the tooth.
Dental enamel hypoplasia (DEH) is the manifestation of lines, grooves or pits on the crown surface of the teeth which represent cessation of crown formation. The defects represent periods of severe stress during childhood, including malnutrition or disease. DEH lesions produce a permanent record of episodes of pathological and nutritional disturbance before the age of seven, while the permanent tooth crowns (except for those of the wisdom teeth) are forming. DEH was observed in three teeth (12%), affecting all three preserved canines.
Mortuary Practice
The skeletons were interred in a ritually significant landscape, dating form the Neolithic to the late Iron Age. Other excavated features include several pit alignments, a Bronze Age cremation cemetery, inhumations and round and square barrows.
Two burials previously excavated at Nosterfield Quarry represented secondary interments, following exposure of the body with subsequent loss of some bones and later burial of the surviving bones (Holst 2003). A further inhumation, thought to date to the Iron Age, was found in the ditch of a square barrow in 2003 (Holst 2004).
The burials excavated in 2005 were found at the western edge of the area so far monitored by the archaeological watching brief at Nosterfield Quarry. They were both buried in supine and extended positions, orientated in a north to south direction. Both burials are thought to be associated with two curvilinear ditches, which were only partly revealed and excavated. Ditch F433 apparently curved around the perimeter of ditch F430. Both burials are within the perimeter of F430, although the grave of Skeleton 1871 is clipped by the ditch at its eastern edge.
Discussion & Summary
The osteological analysis of the skeletal assemblage from Nosterfield Quarry has provided a glimpse into the lives of the people buried there. The small group of skeletal remains included a young adult male and a middle aged or older female. The skeletons were poorly preserved, thus leading to the loss of much of the bone, as well as limiting the possibility of pathological and dental analysis.
It was possible to identify evidence for age-related degenerative joint disease in the ribs of the older female skeleton. The younger male had suffered episodes of physical stress between the ages of six months and four years. However, he had recovered from these periods of mal-nutrition or disease. Daily tasks, probably carried out during late adolescence and early adulthood, had placed strain on his rotator cuff muscles. It is probable that a circulatory disease had led to shortening of his femoral necks. This was almost certainly caused by poor blood supply to the hip joints and may have been disabling.
In common with other human remains found during previous watching brief phases at Nosterfield Quarry, the skeletons represent small groups of relatively isolated burials in the landscape.
Future Recommendations
It is recommended that the skeletons are subject to absolute dating, with the aim of establishing, whether they are contemporary with any of the inhumations previously excavated at Nosterfield Quarry. This may in turn aid the interpretation of the prehistoric landscape in which these individuals had been interred. Update: 10th August 2006 - radiocarbon dates for F431 and F432.
References
Berry, A.C. and Berry, R.J. 1967. 'Epigenetic variation in the human cranium', Journal of Anatomy 101 (2): 361-379
Buikstra, J.E. and Ubelaker D.H. (eds) 1994. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Fayetteville)
Cox, M. 2000a. 'Ageing adults from the skeleton', in M. Cox and S. Mays (eds), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science (London): 61-82
Cox, M. 2000b. 'Assessment of parturition', in M. Cox and S. Mays (eds), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science (London): 131-142
Finnegan, M. 1978. 'Non-metric variation of the infracranial skeleton', Journal of Anatomy 125: 23-37
Hawkey, D.E. and Merbs, C.F. 1995. 'Activity-induced musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) and subsistence strategy changes among ancient Hudson Bay Eskimos', International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5: 324-338
Holst, M. 2004. Osteological Assessment, Nosterfield Quarry, North Yorkshire , York Osteoarchaeology, Unpublished Osteological Report No. 0304
Holst, M. 2003. Osteological Analysis, Nosterfield Quarry, North Yorkshire , Field Archaeology Specialists Unpublished Osteological Report
Kennedy, K.A.R. 1989. 'Skeletal markers of occupational stress', in M.Y. I scan. and K.A.R. Kennedy (eds), Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton (New York):129-160
Knüsel, C. 2000. 'Bone adaption and its relationship to physical activity in the past', in M. Cox and S. Mays (eds), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science (London): 381-402
Mays, S. and Cox, M. 2000. 'Sex determination in skeletal remains', in M. Cox and S. Mays (eds), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science (London): 117-130
Roberts, C.A. and Manchester, K. 1995. The Archaeology of Disease (Stroud)
Rogers, J. 2001. 'The palaeopathology of joint disease', in M. Cox and S. Mays (eds), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science (London): 163-182
Saunders, S.R. 1989. 'Non-metric variation', in M.Y. Iscan and K.A.R. Kennedy (eds) Reconstruction of Life from the Skeleton (New York): 95-108
Scheuer, L. and Black, S. 2000a. 'Development and ageing of the juvenile skeleton', in M. Cox and S. Mays (eds), Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic Science (London): 9-22
Scheuer, L. and Black, S. 2000b. Developmental Juvenile Osteology (San Diego)
Trinkhaus, E. 1978. 'Bilateral asymmetry of human skeletal non-metric traits', American Journal of Physical Anthropology 49: 315-318
Appendix A: Osteological & Palaeopathalogical Catalogue
Skeleton Number |
1871 |
|||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Preservation |
Poor |
|||||||||||||||
Completeness |
60%, parts of the skull, arms, legs, pelvis, sacrum, right hand, legs |
|||||||||||||||
Age |
17-25, young adult |
|||||||||||||||
Sex |
Male |
|||||||||||||||
Stature |
163 ± 3.27cm |
|||||||||||||||
Non-Metric Traits |
Third trochanter (bilateral) |
|||||||||||||||
Pathology |
Coxa vara, bone excavations for pectoralis major on right humerus |
|||||||||||||||
Dental Health |
Slight periodontitis, calculus in 6/26 teeth, caries 1/26 teeth, DEH in 3/26 teeth |
|||||||||||||||
Right Dentition |
Left Dentition |
|||||||||||||||
Present |
- |
- |
P |
- |
- |
- |
P |
- |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
Calculus |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Sl |
- |
- |
DEH |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
L |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Caries |
- |
- |
Mm |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Wear |
- |
- |
2 |
- |
- |
- |
2 |
- |
3 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
Maxilla |
8 |
7 |
6 |
5 |
4 |
3 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
Mandible |
8 |
7 |
6 |
5 |
4 |
3 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
8 |
Present |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
P |
Calculus |
- |
Sl |
Sl |
- |
- |
Sl |
Sl |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Sl |
- |
- |
DEH |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
L |
- |
- |
- |
- |
L |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Caries |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
- |
Wear |
1 |
2 |
3 |
2 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
3 |
2 |
2 |
3 |
2 |
1 |
Skeleton Number |
1873 |
|---|---|
Preservation |
Very poor |
Completeness |
18^%, parts of the left arm, 2 vertebrae, parts of the femoral necks, left hip and right radius |
Age |
35+, old middle to mature adult |
Sex |
Female |
Stature |
- |
Non-Metric Traits |
Circumflex sulcus (left) |
Pathology |
Slight rib DJD |
KEY:
Present - Tooth presence; am - ante-mortem tooth loss; pm - post-mortem
tooth loss; p - tooth present; - - jaw not present
Caries - Calculus; F -
flecks of calculus; S - slight calculus; M - moderate calculus; H - heavy
calculus; a - all surfaces; b - buccal surface; d - distal surface; m - mesial
surface; l - lingual surface; o - occlusal surface
DEH - dental enamel hypoplasia;
l - lines; g - grooves; p - pits
Caries - caries; s - small lesions; m -
moderate lesions; l - large lesions
Wear - dental wear; numbers from 1-8
- slight to severe wear
See also: radiocarbon dates for F431 and F432
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