Blue Bridge Lane
&
Fishergate House
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A total of 244 inhumations were excavated from the medieval cemetery of Fishergate House, York. Additionally, a large quantity of disarticulated human bones was recovered from the site, resulting in a minimum number of 242 individuals. At the adjacent site of Blue Bridge Lane, the recovery of further disarticulated bones in features dating from the Roman period to the 19th century imply that the area was used for burial from the Roman period onwards. This theory is reinforced by the presence of four cremation burials at Fishergate House and a single Roman urn excavated at Blue Bridge Lane. It is probable that the Roman burials belonged to a linear cemetery which extended along both sides of the former Roman road, which lay approximately under the current alignment of Fishergate. The medieval cemetery, on the other hand, was orientated perpendicular to Fishergate in an east-west alignment, on a narrow strip of land running from Fishergate towards the River Ouse. Archaeological evidence from excavations at Blue Bridge Lane demonstrated that the Fishergate House cemetery was separated by a wall from the precinct of the Gilbertine priory of St Andrew's, which lay to the north of the graveyard. Although it is possible that the priory may have been associated with the creation and maintenance of the cemetery at Fishergate House, the skeletal evidence suggests that this cemetery was used by a very different part of medieval society.
It is probable that burial at Fishergate House occurred in small groups, which might include family members or members of a community who died around the same time. Three possible 'couples' were identified, with a male and a female being interred in graves on top of one another. Although children could be interred in any part of the cemetery, few young children were noted in the southeastern area (Intervention 4), while a concentration of children was encountered in the northern part of the site (Intervention 2). All individuals were interred with their heads to the west and feet to the east, with the exception of one infant; alignments varied slightly, but by no more than a few degrees. Grave markers did not survive, but one of the skeletons, which was not fully excavated, had been interred in a grave lined with stone slabs. On the basis of evidence of wood stains and nails, a small number of individuals are thought to have been buried in coffins, but the majority of the population had probably been wrapped in shrouds. Only three grave goods were found; these included a scallop shell, the symbol of St James, signifying pilgrimage to his shrine in Santiago del Compostello. The remaining grave goods consisted of a buckle and a ring. None of the grave goods were indicative of high status and this, together with a predominance of burial in shrouds and poor general health, suggests that the Fishergate House population represents the lower socio-economic classes.
Both sexes and all age groups, from foetuses to mature adults, were represented in the cemetery. Males and females were represented almost equally and formed over half of the population, while the other half was made up of children. The greatest mortality rate was observed in individuals aged between one and six years. As the rate of infant death was low, it is probable that weaning contributed to ill health rather than mortality. It is possible that the mortality peak in young juveniles was caused by early onset of apprenticeships, believed to be a causal factor in other populations, but this is refuted by the lack of visible trauma in children from Fishergate House. Alternatively, a low overall immune system as a result of exposure to a high pathogen load, and accompanying high susceptibility to common childhood infections, may be the main factor influencing mortality in the two to six year old children. Mortality rate decreased with age following this peak, and the greatest number of adult deaths occurred in the mature adult group. This indicates that those who survived to adulthood had a good chance of living to old age.
The relatively low number of young females of childbearing age, together with the presence of foetuses and newborns, implies that females were more likely to survive childbirth than their children, which may have been the result of a deliberate attempt to save mothers in favour of the infants. The possible case of foetal twins who had been interred together illustrates the difficulties medieval mothers must have experienced in the face of poor hygiene and limited medical knowledge. The fact that so many women appear to have survived childbirth is probably due to attendance by midwives, as well as effective immune systems. Those females who had died during young adulthood exhibited more evidence for infection than the older women, suggesting that effects of pregnancy and childbirth had lowered immune status and therefore caused greater susceptibility to infection. Alternatively, lowered immune status before pregnancy may have contributed to higher illness and mortality rates during pregnancy and childbirth.
It is rarely possible to identify the cause of death in skeletal remains from archaeological contexts. However, at Fishergate House, it was possible to determine the cause of death in at least four individuals, who had died as a result of severe weapon trauma, possibly sustained in battle. Further weapon trauma, which was healing or had healed, was noted in several other individuals and it is possible that these injuries had contributed to eventual death.
The relatively varied age profile of foetuses and infants recovered from the site suggests that these babies died of natural causes, such as from the effects of birth and infection, rather than as a result of infanticide, as has been suggested at other sites.
Further causes of death might be suggested by evidence for skeletal manifestations of disease, although it is possible that these individuals succumbed to the effects of other diseases which did not produce skeletal lesions. Evidence for infectious disease was observed in the form of one case of leprosy, which had resulted in severe infection of the lower legs, as well as deformation and 'loss' of the toes. Additionally, some of the population (4.5%) showed effects of pulmonary tuberculosis, and it is probable that a much larger proportion of the group had the disease, as only a small number of those with tuberculosis actually develop skeletal lesions. The virulence of tuberculosis increases particularly in those communities who endure poor living conditions, nutrition and social deprivation (Bannister et al 2000). It is thought that without antibiotics, at least one third of those with tuberculosis would have died within five years. However, the remainder would have suffered for one or more decades, and would not only have been inactive members to the community, but would also have burdened those who cared for them.
Other conditions suffered by the Fishergate group included hydrocephalus ('water on the brain'), to which one of the juveniles may have succumbed. Furthermore, half of the sinuses showed evidence for chronic sinusitis, which may have been related to low immune status. Sinusitis was observed in many children and young females, and the early death of these individuals suggests that they had weakened immune systems, which may have caused greater susceptibility to the infection. Additionally, over 42% of the population showed evidence for superficial inflammation, which was most common on the legs. It is probable that these lesions developed as a result of a number of causes, including trauma and infectious disease. The high prevalence rate of sinusitis, non-specific inflammation, as well as iron deficiency anaemia, which was observed in over 40% of orbits, is probably related to the high pathogen load which this population was exposed to.
The majority of episodes of stress observed in the skeletons must have occurred during childhood. This is when the bone still develops and periods of physical hardship often cause cessation of bone development, as the body concentrates on basic survival. Harris lines (lines of arrested growth) were observed in six individuals, and more than half the population showed evidence for physical stress between the ages of one and six in the form of dental lesions. The age of lesion development corresponds with the peak in child mortality rate and leads to the conclusion that the greatest deprivation was experienced during the early years of childhood. Four children also showed evidence for dental lesions indicative of stress in the milk teeth, implying that these individuals suffered from stress in the womb. These lesions are rarely noted in milk teeth, and may be related to the greater mortality observed in the first few weeks of life for infants who had suffered hardship during gestation.
It is probable that females endured greater deprivation during childhood than males, as a greater prevalence of childhood stress markers were noted in women. This implies that boys and girls were treated differently by society, with better treatment of male children. However, the slightly higher mortality rate of young adult males as compared with young adult females suggests that although females may have suffered greater stress during childhood, males were more likely to experience stress during early adulthood.
It is interesting to note that males and females suffered from the same diseases, and showed similar evidence for stress and trauma. However, it was found that males suffered to a greater degree, and showed a wider distribution of activity-related trauma than females. This manifested in the form of sexually dimorphic dimensions in the upper limbs of males and females. Additionally, although both males and females suffered from degenerative joint disease (DJD) and Schmorl's nodes (lesions indicative of vertebral disk herniation), males were more likely to be affected by the conditions and exhibited a greater distribution of the lesions. This was also the case with soft tissue trauma at muscle attachments and in fracture rates. It is probable, therefore, that both sexes carried out hard physical work throughout their lives, and in fact, muscle trauma in children suggests that involvement in physical work began at a young age. However, it appears that the tasks carried out by males and females were, at least in part, distinct. Males were involved in heavier work and suffered physically as a result. It appears that the strain of this work may have contributed to male mortality, as all of the young males from this population showed evidence for Schmorl's nodes, whereas only some of the older men had these lesions.
Distinct work environments are also suggested by the distribution of sinusitis in males and females. The greatest prevalence of sinusitis was noted in young females and in old males. This suggests that females suffered from sinusitis as a result of lowered immune status following the effects of pregnancy and childbirth, whereas sinusitis in males may have been caused by the accumulative effects of pollution. Many of York's industries would have been extremely polluting, and it is possible that males endured greater exposure to pollution than females. This contradicts findings from other archaeological sites, where females suffered from a greater prevalence rate of sinusitis than males, which was attributed to greater exposure to smoke by tending to and working around household fires.
One notable difference between males and females was the much greater rate of weapon trauma in males. It is probable that some of the males from the site fought in battles, where they sustained these injuries. Additionally, the greater frequency of rib fractures and dental trauma in males indicates participation in inter-personal conflicts, which may have included brawls as well as battles. However, females were not uninvolved in conflict: a small number of females had suffered single weapon injuries, which may have been the result of fights, accidents or abuse. Three females had evidence for fractures of the little finger, which is usually broken in those cases when one hits an object or person with a fist, suggesting that women may have also participated in fights.
Even with the great prevalence of infectious disease in this population, it appears that some basic knowledge on treatment of wounds aided in the prevention of infection. Despite a relatively high number of fractures and the likely high incidence of daily cuts and sores, little evidence for wound infection was noted. Curiously, despite the (rare) discovery at St Andrew's of a splint, almost all healed fractures at Fishergate were mal-aligned, often producing crippling effects. It is not known why such a simple treatment was not applied to the fractures at the Fishergate House cemetery. The only clear evidence for treatment was a single case of dental surgery in the form of extraction of a tooth and the surrounding bone, which may have been infected. Healing at the site of extraction demonstrated that the patient had survived the operation.
The individuals from Fishergate House were of average medieval appearance. The skulls and faces were relatively rounded, a common medieval characteristic. They were of average medieval stature, with a male mean stature of 170.1cm and female average of 159.1cm. In addition, the length of long bones corresponded with the medieval norm. Measurements of a number of bones suggest that there was no clear asymmetric hand use, implying that many activities were carried out with both arms.
The prevalence of non-metric traits and congenital anomalies were distinct from other medieval cemeteries. This was not unexpected considering that different populations tend to have their own genetic population characteristics. The lack of common genetic anomalies between individuals interred at Fishergate House and at St Andrew's suggests that the majority of individuals from the cemetery did not share familial links.
The dental health of this population corresponded with the medieval norm. It is not surprising, therefore, to note similar prevalence rates of dental disease, and severity of tooth wear in the different cemeteries. Additionally, it is probable that dental hygiene was relatively poor across groups from different backgrounds. Poor dental care was certainly the major factor contributing to poor dental health, which was characterised by widespread deposits of dental plaque, periodontitis, but few cavities and abscesses.
The Fishergate House population suffered worse health than the medieval average. The prevalence rate of iron deficiency anaemia, rickets, scurvy, non-specific inflammatory lesions and tuberculosis were higher than in most other medieval populations. The frequency of different types of trauma, on the other hand, was within the medieval norm. The evidence suggests that the population endured severe hardship, which particularly affected children between the ages of one and six. Juveniles often succumbed to the effects of deprivation or developed skeletal markers of physical stress. Girls appeared to have endured greater physical hardship than boys. During early adulthood, although few females succumbed to the dangers of pregnancy and birth, those who did die had weakened immune systems, which meant that they were more susceptible to bacterial and viral attack. The young males all showed evidence for considerable physical strain, suggesting that this may have weakened their immune system, causing greater susceptibility to disease. Nevertheless, a considerable proportion of the population survived to old adulthood and this suggests that although the population showed more evidence for disease than other medieval populations, they successfully survived episodes of disease and bore the scars of illness.
The Roman cremation burials consisted of four young juveniles and one adolescent. Two of the juveniles were interred with either adults or adolescents, forming double burials. The presence of this group of children may suggest that the Fishergate House area was reserved for the burial of the young.
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