Blue Bridge Lane
&
Fishergate House
Printed from the APC web site: navigation and non-essential images removed.
Please view on-line for full content (URL at end of document).
Evidence for pathology was also observed in some of the 8,072 disarticulated bones analysed. The prevalence of pathological conditions in the disarticulated remains mirrors that of the articulated skeletons in most cases. Numerous musculoskeletal markers were observed and recorded. These reflected the general trends seen in the articulated skeletons, with a high incidence of bone excavations at the site of attachment of the costoclavicular ligament, pectoralis major and soleus.
Four bones with evidence for congenital anomalies were found (Table 43). These included three cases of coxa vara, and one case of sacro-iliac fusion. Both of these conditions were also observed in the articulated skeletons (four cases of sacroiliac fusion, three cases of coxa vara).
| Context | Pathology | Bone | Age | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1003 | fusion | sacrum fused to left hip | adult | u |
| 1003 | coxa vara | right and l femur | adult | u |
| 1482 | coxa vara | right femur | adult | u |
| 1482 | Stafne defect | maxilla | mature adult | u |
One unusual lesion, which is thought to have been a congenital defect, was a penetrating median anterior maxillary fissural inclusion cyst (or Stafne defect) on a left maxillary second premolar from C1482. This defect can occur during foetal development (Barnes 1994, 177).
The most common metabolic condition observed in the disarticulated remains, as well as in the articulated skeletons, was cribra orbitalia (skeletal lesions indicative of iron deficiency anaemia). In the disarticulated remains, eleven cases of cribra orbitaliawere noted, the severity of which was predominantly mild (Table 44), while 20% of articulated skeletons had the porotic lesions.
| Context | Pathology | Bone | Age | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1158 | cribra orbitalia | orbits (stage 2) | juvenile | u |
| 1588 | cribra orbitalia | right orbit (stage 2) | adult | female |
| 1430 | cribra orbitalia | right orbit (stage 2) | adult | male |
| 1007 | cribra orbitalia | l orbit (stage 2) | juvenile | u |
| 1227 | cribra orbitalia | orbits (stage 2) | juvenile | u |
| 1482 | rickets? | right femur (bowed medially) | adult | u |
| 1003 | cribra orbitalia | 3 orbits (1 stage 2, 2 stage 3) | juvenile | u |
| 1003 | cribra orbitalia | 3 orbits (stage 2) | adult | u |
| 1003 | rickets? | right femur (bowed medially) | juvenile | u |
Two possible cases of rickets were noted, in the form of two bowing femora. Alternatively, the bowing may have been caused by greenstick fractures, suggesting a traumatic origin. In comparison, six cases of probable rickets were observed in the articulated skeletons.
The most common skeletal manifestations in the articulated and disarticulated human remains were those indicative of infectious disease. Forty-seven percent of articulated skeletons suffered from non-specific inflammatory lesions, most of which were concentrated on the lower limbs. Fifty-seven bones or bone fragments from the disarticulated remains showed evidence for inflammatory new bone formation on the bone surface (Table 45). Similar to the complete skeletons, the manifestations were noted mostly in lower leg bones, but were also common on the skull. The majority of the lesions had been active at the time of death, and three cases of severe deforming spicular new bone formation were visible. Additionally, one case of osteits, or bone cortex infection, was noted in a tibia; the lower end of a radius was thought to have been fractured, with secondary bone infection (osteomyelitis). The infection had caused the formation of a pus-releasing sinus, and may have led to septicaemia and death.
| Context | Pathology | Bone | Age | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1003 | lamellar bone | 10 tibia fragments, 5 fibula fragments | adult | u |
| 1003 | woven bone | right frontal (endocranial), frontal (supraorbital ridge), occipital (endocranial) | adult | u |
| 1003 | woven bone | rib shaft | adult | u |
| 1003 | lamellar bone | right tibia | juvenile | u |
| 1003 | lamellar, woven bone | l tibia, fibula (spicules) | adult | u |
| 1003 | woven bone | right tibia, right and left femur, occipital (endo- and ectocranial surface) | juvenile | u |
| 1005 | osteitis, woven bone | l tibia | adult | u |
| 1018 | sinusitis | frontal sinus | adult | u |
| 1054 | woven bone | femur (neck and head) | adult | u |
| 1056 | osteomyelitis | right radius (large cloaca at distal epiphysis, due to fracture?) | adult | u |
| 1056 | lamellar bone | l tibia, fibula | adult | u |
| 1074 | lamellar bone | l tibia | adult | u |
| 1134 | woven bone | fibula | adult | u |
| 1148 | woven bone | right femur (neck) | adult | u |
| 1158 | sinusitis | maxillary sinus | young adult | female |
| 1160 | lamellar bone | l tibia | adult | u |
| 1162 | woven bone | rib | juvenile | u |
| 1162 | woven bone | l humerus (distal) | infant | u |
| 1204 | woven bone | skull (endocranial surface) | adult | u |
| 1204 | woven bone, scooped lesion | 5 ribs | u | u |
| 1227 | woven bone | fibula, right femur | juvenile | u |
| 1232 | lamellar bone | l tibia | adult | u |
| 1236 | woven bone | right femur, right ulna, ilium | juvenile | u |
| 1236 | lamellar bone | fibula | adult | u |
| 1285 | lamellar bone | tibia | adult | u |
| 1304 | woven bone | temporal (ectocranial) | infant | u |
| 1310 | woven bone | right tibia | juvenile | u |
| 1311 | woven bone | 4 rib shafts | adult | u |
| 1388 | woven bone | humeri, l hip | foetus | u |
| 1409 | woven bone | l femur | foetus/infant | u |
| 1451 | woven, lamellar bone | l tibia (spicules) | adult | u |
| 1482 | lamellar bone | right femur | adult | u |
| 1554 | woven bone | tibia | adult | u |
Eleven rib fragments with periosteal reactions were found, including five fragments with localised focal lesions suggestive of tuberculosis (discussed above). The presence of the oval lesions, which were only noted in one of the articulated skeletons, further supports the notion that tuberculosis was endemic in this population. No evidence for leprosy was observed in the disarticulated hand, foot or facial bones.
Only two cases of sinusitis were noted in the disarticulated remains, which may be a reflection of the preservation of maxillary sinuses, rather than the prevalence of sinusitis, considering that 50.5% of articulated skeletons with preserved sinuses suffered from the condition.
Degenerative joint disease was most prevalent in the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, although it was also common in the hips, which was a trend also observed in the articulated skeletons. Osteoarthritis was most common in the hips and wrist, followed by the ribs (Table 46). Additional sites affected only one case each and included the shoulder, elbow, ankle and a cervical vertebra. In the articulated remains, the shoulder was most likely to be affected by osteoarthritis.
| Context | Pathology | Bone | Age | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1003 | Schmorl's node | 8 thoracics, 3 lumbars | adult | u |
| 1003 | DJD | scapula (glenoid), 1st metacarpal, right 2nd metacarpal, femur (distal), right 1st metatarsal, l 2nd metatarsal | adult | u |
| 1003 | osteoarthritis | l femur (head) | adult | u |
| 1056 | Schmorl's node | 3 thoracics, 2 lumbars | adult | u |
| 1064 | osteoarthritis | rib | adult | u |
| 1074 | osteoarthritis | pelvis (acetabulum) | mature adult | male |
| 1074 | osteoarthritis | l ulna (distal) | mature adult | u |
| 1127 | osteoarthritis | cervical vertebra | adult | u |
| 1134 | DJD | hand phalanx (1st proximal) | adult | u |
| 1183 | DJD | hip (auricular surface) | mature adult | u |
| 1219 | osteoarthritis | l humerus (capitulum) | mature adult | u |
| 1232 | Schmorl's nodes | t12, l2 | adult | u |
| 1292 | osteoarthrits | l talus | adult | u |
| 1311 | DJD | l ulna | adult | u |
| 1311 | DJD | acetabulum | adult | male |
| 1353 | Schmorl's node | thoracic vertebra | adult | u |
| 1392 | osteoarthritis | rib (tubercle) | adult | u |
| 1399 | Schmorl's node | lumbar vertebra | adult | u |
| 1404 | osteoarthritis | l ulna (head) | mature adult | u |
| 1409 | osteoarthritis | r humerus (head) | adult | u |
| 1430 | Schmorl's node | 3 lumbar vertebrae | adult | u |
| 1482 | Schmorl's node | thoracic vertebra | adult | u |
| 1564 | DJD | hips (auricular surface) | mature adult | female |
The incidence of Schmorl's nodes was high in both males and females from this population. It was therefore not surprising to observe many of these lesions in the disarticulated assemblage, in fourteen thoracic and ten lumbar vertebrae. Articulated males were more likely to suffer from Schmorl's nodes in the thoracic spine, whereas the lesions were more common in female lumbar vertebrae.
As noted above, twenty-eight articulated skeletons (11.5%) had suffered from fractures during life, most of which were well-healed, and the majority of which had affected the ribs. This tendency, however, was not observed in the disarticulated remains. Nine fractured disarticulated bones were noted, consisting primarily of hand or foot bones (Table 47). Additionally, a clavicle had fractured and healed with a severe kink in the bone (C1468). This, however, would not have been as disabling as the fracture to a femoral neck observed in C1003, which was distorted and mal-aligned, but surprisingly well-healed. Additionally, two radial fractures were encountered, one of which was a greenstick fracture, while the other was a possible Colles' fracture (C1285; C1056). Finally, a nasal crest fracture was observed in the disarticulated assemblage (C1175), which had no parallels in the articulated skeletons.
| Context | Pathology | Bone | Age | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1003 | weapon trauma | frontal (large healed penetrating injury above left orbit) | adult | u |
| 1003 | fracture? | right 3rd metacarpal (healed, twisted) | adult | u |
| 1003 | fracture? | right femur (shaft bent, neck distorted) | adult | u |
| 1056 | fracture? | right radius (distal end, secondary osteomyelitis) | adult | u |
| 1056 | fracture? | right 5th metatarsal | adult | u |
| 1186 | os acromiale | right scapula | adult | u |
| 1175 | fracture? | nasal crest | adult | u |
| 1175 | fracture | first left metacarpal (anterior proximal epiphysis, healed, displaced) | adult | u |
| 1283 | fracture? | right 5th metatarsal | adult | u |
| 1285 | fracture? | left radius (bent laterally, could be greenstick fracture or rickets) | juvenile | u |
| 1468 | fracture | right clavicle (healed, mal-aligned) | adult | u |
| 1482 | weapon trauma | right mandible (sword cut at inferior body, not healed) |
Further evidence for trauma was observed in the form of one case of os acromiale in a right scapula (C1186). Only three cases of this condition were observed in the articulated population, two affecting males and one a female.
Two bones with weapon trauma were found in the disarticulated remains, including an unhealed sword cut to the right mandible (C1482) and a healing penetrating injury to a left frontal part of a skull (C1003). Interestingly, none of the articulated skeletons which had sustained weapon trauma were lacking a right mandible or frontal, suggesting that at least one further individual from this population had been the victim of armed conflict.
As noted above, evidence for neoplastic disease was found in five articulated skeletons, and consisted exclusively of osteomas (small rounded benign tumours). Similarly, in the disarticulated skeletal remains, three cases of osteoma were noted, two of which were identified on the frontal part of the skull, with a further case on a parietal (Table 48).
| Context | Pathology | Bone | Age | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1003 | osteoma | skull (frontal) | adult | - |
| 1003 | osteoma | skull (frontal) | adult | male |
| 1392 | osteoma | skull (parietal) | adult | - |
The evidence for pathology in the disarticulated human remains from features and stratified layers from Fishergate House reflects that observed in the articulated skeletons. Evidence for hard physical labour was noted in the form of pronounced muscle attachments, as well as Schmorl's nodes. Little sign degenerative joint disease and osteoarthritis supports the impression that this population was not prone to degenerative changes. This may be a reflection of an early age of death, or may be due to exposure to hard manual labour from an early age, and subsequent bone adaptation.
Evidence for metabolic conditions was observed in the form of cribra orbitalia and two possible cases of rickets.
The disarticulated remains provided evidence for the presence of at least one further individual affected by weapon trauma, with injuries on a frontal and mandible. The extensive evidence for healing of fractured bones and weapon injuries, with successful union of the bone ends and lack of infection (although many of the healed bones were mal-aligned), indicates that this community had some knowledge of bone-healing techniques.
Infection was, however, the most severe problem for these people, with much evidence for mild to severe non-specific infection. Severe infection of the central part of the bone, which may have led to septicaemia, was present in one disarticulated arm bone. Further inflammatory lesions of the ribs, as well as five ribs with focal tuberculous abscesses, were found. This is an important discovery, as only one articulated skeleton had exhibited these lesions, and these disarticulated remains provide further evidence for tuberculosis in the population.
apc > monographs > blue bridge lane & fishergate house > artefacts & environmental > human bone:
